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The wedge and the inclined plane ramp were known since prehistoric times. It relied on animal power reducing the tow on the requirement of human energy. The earliest practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and watermill , first appeared in the Persian Empire , in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC.
In Roman Egypt , Heron of Alexandria c. The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song — AD incorporated an escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before escapement devices were found in medieval European clocks.
He also invented the world’s first known endless power-transmitting chain drive. During the Islamic Golden Age 7th to 15th century , Muslim inventors made remarkable contributions in the field of mechanical technology.
Al-Jazari , who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Ingenious Devices in and presented many mechanical designs. In the 17th century, important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechanical engineering occurred in England and the Continent. The Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock in , which was the first reliable timekeeper for almost years, and published a work dedicated to clock designs and the theory behind them.
Newton was reluctant to publish his works for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues, such as Edmond Halley. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , who earlier designed a mechanical calculator , is also credited with developing the calculus during the same time period.
During the early 19th century Industrial Revolution, machine tools were developed in England, Germany , and Scotland. This allowed mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering. They brought with them manufacturing machines and the engines to power them. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based on a strong foundation in mathematics and science.
Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at various universities worldwide. Mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five years of study depending on the place and university and result in a Bachelor of Engineering B. In Italy the course work is based on five years of education, and training, but in order to qualify as an Engineer one has to pass a state exam at the end of the course.
In Greece, the coursework is based on a five-year curriculum and the requirement of a ‘Diploma’ Thesis, which upon completion a ‘Diploma’ is awarded rather than a B. In the United States, most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology ABET to ensure similar course requirements and standards among universities.
In Australia , mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering Mechanical or similar nomenclature, although there are an increasing number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of full-time study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord.
Before the degree can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an engineering firm. In India, to become an engineer, one needs to have an engineering degree like a B.
Tech or B. A similar system is used in Nepal. The master’s and engineer’s degrees may or may not include research. The Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia. Standards set by each country’s accreditation society are intended to provide uniformity in fundamental subject material, promote competence among graduating engineers, and to maintain confidence in the engineering profession as a whole.
Engineering programs in the U. Universities and institutes of technology will often combine multiple subjects into a single class or split a subject into multiple classes, depending on the faculty available and the university’s major area s of research. Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry, physics, tribology , chemical engineering , civil engineering , and electrical engineering.
All mechanical engineering programs include multiple semesters of mathematical classes including calculus, and advanced mathematical concepts including differential equations , partial differential equations , linear algebra , abstract algebra , and differential geometry , among others.
In addition to the core mechanical engineering curriculum, many mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs and classes, such as control systems , robotics, transport and logistics , cryogenics , fuel technology, automotive engineering , biomechanics , vibration, optics and others, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects.
Most mechanical engineering programs also require varying amounts of research or community projects to gain practical problem-solving experience. In the United States it is common for mechanical engineering students to complete one or more internships while studying, though this is not typically mandated by the university.
Cooperative education is another option. Future work skills [37] research puts demand on study components that feed student’s creativity and innovation. Mechanical engineers research, design, develop, build, and test mechanical and thermal devices, including tools, engines, and machines. Mechanical engineers design and oversee the manufacturing of many products ranging from medical devices to new batteries.
They also design power-producing machines such as electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines as well as power-using machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers to help create and analyze designs, run simulations and test how a machine is likely to work.
Engineers may seek license by a state, provincial, or national government. The purpose of this process is to ensure that engineers possess the necessary technical knowledge, real-world experience, and knowledge of the local legal system to practice engineering at a professional level.
In the U. The requirements and steps of this process are set forth by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying NCEES , composed of engineering and land surveying licensing boards representing all U. In the UK, current graduates require a BEng plus an appropriate master’s degree or an integrated MEng degree, a minimum of 4 years post graduate on the job competency development and a peer reviewed project report to become a Chartered Mechanical Engineer CEng, MIMechE through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.
In most developed countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a professional engineer or a chartered engineer. In other countries, such as Australia, and the UK, no such legislation exists; however, practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics independent of legislation, that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.
The total number of engineers employed in the U. Of these, , were mechanical engineers The field of mechanical engineering can be thought of as a collection of many mechanical engineering science disciplines.
Several of these subdisciplines which are typically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below, with a brief explanation and the most common application of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to mechanical engineering, while others are a combination of mechanical engineering and one or more other disciplines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines, as well as specialized subdisciplines.
Specialized subdisciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than undergraduate research. Several specialized subdisciplines are discussed in this section. Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of forces and their effect upon matter.
Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation both elastic and plastic of objects under known forces also called loads or stresses.
Subdisciplines of mechanics include. Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the design or analysis phases of engineering. If the engineering project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense.
Dynamics might be used when designing the car’s engine, to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle see HVAC , or to design the intake system for the engine. Mechatronics is a combination of mechanics and electronics.
It is an interdisciplinary branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and software engineering that is concerned with integrating electrical and mechanical engineering to create hybrid automation systems. In this way, machines can be automated through the use of electric motors , servo-mechanisms , and other electrical systems in conjunction with special software.
Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated software controls the process and communicates the contents of the CD to the computer. Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These robots may be of any shape and size, but all are preprogrammed and interact physically with the world.
To create a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics to determine the robot’s range of motion and mechanics to determine the stresses within the robot. Robots are used extensively in industrial automation engineering. They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for humans to perform them economically, and to ensure better quality.
Many companies employ assembly lines of robots, especially in Automotive Industries and some factories are so robotized that they can run by themselves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in bomb disposal, space exploration , and many other fields. Robots are also sold for various residential applications, from recreation to domestic applications. Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineering and also civil engineering devoted to examining why and how objects fail and to fix the objects and their performance.
Structural failures occur in two general modes: static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure occurs when, upon being loaded having a force applied the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed plastically , depending on the criterion for failure. Fatigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number of repeated loading and unloading cycles.
Fatigue failure occurs because of imperfections in the object: a microscopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance, will grow slightly with each cycle propagation until the crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure. Failure is not simply defined as when a part breaks, however; it is defined as when a part does not operate as intended.
Some systems, such as the perforated top sections of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these systems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to determine the cause. Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent failure. Engineers often use online documents and books such as those published by ASM [50] to aid them in determining the type of failure and possible causes.
Once theory is applied to a mechanical design, physical testing is often performed to verify calculated results. Structural analysis may be used in an office when designing parts, in the field to analyze failed parts, or in laboratories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests. Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several branches of engineering, including mechanical and chemical engineering.
At its simplest, thermodynamics is the study of energy, its use and transformation through a system. As an example, automotive engines convert chemical energy enthalpy from the fuel into heat, and then into mechanical work that eventually turns the wheels. Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical engineers in the fields of heat transfer , thermofluids , and energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-science to design engines and power plants , heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning HVAC systems, heat exchangers , heat sinks , radiators , refrigeration , insulation , and others.
Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which mechanical engineers design products and create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information.
Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design CAD programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions. Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings. However, with the advent of computer numerically controlled CNC manufacturing, parts can now be fabricated without the need for constant technician input.
Manually manufactured parts generally consist of spray coatings , surface finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine. Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture.
Many mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering CAE programs into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design CAD. This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances.
Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle management PLM tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability.
Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few.
In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity , complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.
As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronics , multidisciplinary design optimization MDO is being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process.
MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems. Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is physically possible in order to produce safer, cheaper, and more efficient machines and mechanical systems.
Some technologies at the cutting edge of mechanical engineering are listed below see also exploratory engineering. Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, gears, fluidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated from a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS components are the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors, modern cell phones, gyroscopes for precise positioning and microfluidic devices used in biomedical applications.
The innovative steady state non-fusion welding technique joins materials previously un-weldable, including several aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in the future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology to date include welding the seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle external tank, Orion Crew Vehicle, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious assault ships, and welding the wings and fuselage panels of the new Eclipse aircraft from Eclipse Aviation among an increasingly growing pool of uses.
Composites or composite materials are a combination of materials which provide different physical characteristics than either material separately. Composite material research within mechanical engineering typically focuses on designing and, subsequently, finding applications for stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to reduce weight , susceptibility to corrosion, and other undesirable factors.
Carbon fiber reinforced composites, for instance, have been used in such diverse applications as spacecraft and fishing rods. Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical engineering, electronic engineering , and software engineering. The discipline of mechatronics began as a way to combine mechanical principles with electrical engineering.
Mechatronic concepts are used in the majority of electro-mechanical systems. At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology—one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis. For now that goal remains within exploratory engineering. Areas of current mechanical engineering research in nanotechnology include nanofilters, [58] nanofilms, [59] and nanostructures, [60] among others.
Finite Element Analysis is a computational tool used to estimate stress, strain, and deflection of solid bodies. Il codice invece aveva scritte entrambe le facciate di ogni pagina, come in un libro moderno. La prima pagina porta il volto del poeta. I codici di cui parlava erano fatti di pergamena ; nei distici che accompagnavano il regalo di una copia di Omero , per esempio, Marziale la descrive come fatta di “cuoio con molte pieghe”.
Ma copie erano anche fatte di fogli di papiro. Quando i greci ed i romani disponevano solo del rotolo per scrivere libri, si preferiva usare il papiro piuttosto che la pergamena. I ritrovamenti egiziani ci permettono di tracciare il graduale rimpiazzo del rotolo da parte del codice.
Fece la sua comparsa in Egitto non molto dopo il tempo di Marziale, nel II secolo d. Il suo debutto fu modesto. A tutt’oggi sono stati rinvenuti 1. Verso il d. I ritrovamenti egiziani gettano luce anche sulla transizione del codex dal papiro alla pergamena. Sebbene gli undici codici della Bibbia datati in quel secolo fossero papiracei, esistono circa 18 codici dello stesso secolo con scritti pagani e quattro di questi sono in pergamena.
Non ne scegliemmo alcuno, ma ne raccogliemmo altri otto per i quali gli diedi dracme in conto. Il codex tanto apprezzato da Marziale aveva quindi fatto molta strada da Roma.
Nel terzo secolo, quando tali codici divennero alquanto diffusi, quelli di pergamena iniziarono ad essere popolari. In breve, anche in Egitto , la fonte mondiale del papiro , il codice di pergamena occupava una notevole quota di mercato. Sono tutti di pergamena, edizioni eleganti, scritti in elaborata calligrafia su sottili fogli di pergamena.
Per tali edizioni di lusso il papiro era certamente inadatto. In almeno un’area, la giurisprudenza romana , il codex di pergamena veniva prodotto sia in edizioni economiche che in quelle di lusso.
La caduta dell’Impero romano nel V secolo d. Il papiro divenne difficile da reperire a causa della mancanza di contatti con l’ Antico Egitto e la pergamena , che per secoli era stata tenuta in secondo piano, divenne il materiale di scrittura principale. I monasteri continuarono la tradizione scritturale latina dell’ Impero romano d’Occidente. La tradizione e lo stile dell’ Impero romano predominavano ancora, ma gradualmente emerse la cultura del libro medievale.
I monaci irlandesi introdussero la spaziatura tra le parole nel VII secolo. L’innovazione fu poi adottata anche nei Paesi neolatini come l’Italia , anche se non divenne comune prima del XII secolo. Si ritiene che l’inserimento di spazi tra le parole abbia favorito il passaggio dalla lettura semi-vocalizzata a quella silenziosa. Prima dell’invenzione e della diffusione del torchio tipografico , quasi tutti i libri venivano copiati a mano, il che li rendeva costosi e relativamente rari.
I piccoli monasteri di solito possedevano al massimo qualche decina di libri, forse qualche centinaio quelli di medie dimensioni. Il processo della produzione di un libro era lungo e laborioso.
Infine, il libro veniva rilegato dal rilegatore. Esistono testi scritti in rosso o addirittura in oro, e diversi colori venivano utilizzati per le miniature. A volte la pergamena era tutta di colore viola e il testo vi era scritto in oro o argento per esempio, il Codex Argenteus.
Per tutto l’Alto Medioevo i libri furono copiati prevalentemente nei monasteri, uno alla volta. Il sistema venne gestito da corporazioni laiche di cartolai , che produssero sia materiale religioso che profano. Questi libri furono chiamati libri catenati. Vedi illustrazione a margine. L’ ebraismo ha mantenuto in vita l’arte dello scriba fino ad oggi.
Anche gli arabi produssero e rilegarono libri durante il periodo medievale islamico , sviluppando tecniche avanzate di calligrafia araba , miniatura e legatoria.
Col metodo di controllo, solo “gli autori potevano autorizzare le copie, e questo veniva fatto in riunioni pubbliche, in cui il copista leggeva il testo ad alta voce in presenza dell’autore, il quale poi la certificava come precisa”. In xilografia , un’immagine a bassorilievo di una pagina intera veniva intagliata su tavolette di legno, inchiostrata e usata per stampare le copie di quella pagina. Questo metodo ebbe origine in Cina , durante la Dinastia Han prima del a. I monaci o altri che le scrivevano, venivano pagati profumatamente.
I primi libri stampati, i singoli fogli e le immagini che furono creati prima del in Europa, sono noti come incunaboli. Folio 14 recto del Vergilius romanus che contiene un ritratto dell’autore Virgilio. Da notare la libreria capsa , il leggio ed il testo scritto senza spazi in capitale rustica. Leggio con libri catenati , Biblioteca Malatestiana di Cesena. Incunabolo del XV secolo. Si noti la copertina lavorata, le borchie d’angolo e i morsetti.
Insegnamenti scelti di saggi buddisti , il primo libro stampato con caratteri metallici mobili, Le macchine da stampa a vapore diventarono popolari nel XIX secolo. Queste macchine potevano stampare 1 fogli l’ora, ma i tipografi erano in grado di impostare solo 2 lettere l’ora. Le macchine tipografiche monotipo e linotipo furono introdotte verso la fine del XIX secolo. Hart , la prima biblioteca di versioni elettroniche liberamente riproducibili di libri stampati.
I libri a stampa sono prodotti stampando ciascuna imposizione tipografica su un foglio di carta. Le varie segnature vengono rilegate per ottenere il volume. L’apertura delle pagine, specialmente nelle edizioni in brossura , era di solito lasciata al lettore fino agli anni sessanta del XX secolo , mentre ora le segnature vengono rifilate direttamente dalla tipografia.
Nei libri antichi il formato dipende dal numero di piegature che il foglio subisce e, quindi, dal numero di carte e pagine stampate sul foglio. Le “carte di guardia”, o risguardi, o sguardie, sono le carte di apertura e chiusura del libro vero e proprio, che collegano materialmente il corpo del libro alla coperta o legatura.
Non facendo parte delle segnature , non sono mai contati come pagine. Si chiama “controguardia” la carta che viene incollata su ciascun “contropiatto” la parte interna del “piatto” della coperta, permettendone il definitivo ancoraggio.
Le sguardie sono solitamente di carta diversa da quella dell’interno del volume e possono essere bianche, colorate o decorate con motivi di fantasia nei libri antichi erano marmorizzate. Il colophon o colofone, che chiude il volume, riporta le informazioni essenziali sullo stampatore e sul luogo e la data di stampa.
In origine nei manoscritti era costituito dalla firma o subscriptio del copista o dello scriba, e riportava data, luogo e autore del testo; in seguito fu la formula conclusiva dei libri stampati nel XV e XVI secolo, che conteneva, talvolta in inchiostro rosso, il nome dello stampatore, luogo e data di stampa e l’ insegna dell’editore. Sopravvive ancor oggi, soprattutto con la dicitura Finito di stampare.
Nel libro antico poteva essere rivestita di svariati materiali: pergamena, cuoio, tela, carta e costituita in legno o cartone. Poteva essere decorata con impressioni a secco o dorature. Ciascuno dei due cartoni che costituiscono la copertina viene chiamato piatto. Nel XIX secolo la coperta acquista una prevalente funzione promozionale. Ha caratterizzato a lungo l’editoria per l’infanzia e oggi, ricoperto da una “sovraccoperta”, costituisce il tratto caratteristico delle edizioni maggiori. Le “alette” o “bandelle” comunemente dette “risvolti di copertina” sono le piegature interne della copertina o della sovraccoperta vedi infra.
Generalmente vengono utilizzate per una succinta introduzione al testo e per notizie biografiche essenziali sull’autore. Di norma, riporta le indicazioni di titolo e autore. I libri con copertina cartonata in genere sono rivestiti da una “sovraccoperta”. Oltre al taglio “superiore” o di “testa” vi sono il taglio esterno, detto “davanti” o “concavo” , e il taglio inferiore, detto “piede”. I tagli possono essere al naturale, decorati o colorati in vario modo.
In questi ultimi casi, si parla di “taglio colore”, nel passato usati per distinguere i libri religiosi o di valore dalla restante produzione editoriale, utilizzando una spugna imbevuta di inchiostri all’ anilina anni del XX secolo.
Riporta solitamente titolo, autore, e editore del libro. Sovente riporta un motto. Assente nel libro antico. I primi incunaboli e manoscritti non avevano il frontespizio, ma si aprivano con una carta bianca con funzione protettiva. Nel XVII secolo cede la parte decorativa all’ antiporta e vi compaiono le indicazioni di carattere pubblicitario riferite all’editore, un tempo riservate al colophon. In epoca moderna, le illustrazioni e parte delle informazioni si sono trasferite sulla copertina o sulla sovraccoperta e altre informazioni nel verso del frontespizio.
Autodesk Inventor Professional for Designers by Sham Tickoo.
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